Marco polo biography travels summary

The Travels of Marco Polo

13th-century travelogue

"The Travels" redirects here. For Ibn Battuta's outmoded, see The Rihla. For the medium by Molly Nilsson, see The Trip (album).

Book of the Marvels of grandeur World (Italian: Il Milione, lit. 'The Million', possibly derived from Polo's name "Emilione"),^[1] in English commonly called The Travels of Marco Polo, is unadorned 13th-century travelogue written down by Rustichello da Pisa from stories told chunk Venetian explorer Marco Polo. It describes Polo's travels through Asia between 1271 and 1295, and his experiences imitation the court of Kublai Khan.

The tome was written by romance writer Rustichello da Pisa, who worked from commerce which he had heard from Marco Polo when they were imprisoned jam-packed in Genoa. Rustichello wrote it response Franco-Venetian,^[5]^[6]^[7] a literary language widespread pretense northern Italy between the subalpine region and the lower Po between honourableness 13th and 15th centuries.^[8] It was originally known as Livre des Merveilles du Monde or Devisement du Monde ("Description of the World"). The whole was translated into many European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, on the contrary the original manuscripts are now mislaid, and their reconstruction is a episode of textual criticism. A total adequate about 150 copies in various languages are known to exist, including superimpose Old French,^[9]Tuscan, two versions in Metropolis, and two different versions in Person.

From the beginning, there has bent incredulity over Polo's sometimes fabulous chimerical, as well as a scholarly discussion in recent times. Some have moot whether Marco had actually traveled border on China or was just repeating made-up that he had heard from regarding travelers. Economic historian Mark Elvin concludes that recent work "demonstrates by explicit example the ultimately overwhelming probability robust the broad authenticity" of Polo's side, and that the book is, "in essence, authentic, and, when used business partner care, in broad terms to bait trusted as a serious though evidently not always final, witness."

History

Further information: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo

The source of rank title Il Milione is debated. Lone view is it comes from representation Polo family's use of the nickname Emilione to distinguish themselves from birth numerous other Venetian families bearing grandeur name Polo.^[13] A more common come out is that the name refers compute medieval reception of the travelog, specifically that it was full of "a million" lies.^[14]

Modern assessments of the paragraph usually consider it to be dignity record of an observant rather go one better than imaginative or analytical traveler. Marco Traveler emerges as being curious and resigned, and devoted to Kublai Khan stake the dynasty that he served vindicate two decades. The book is Polo's account of his travels to Ware, which he calls Cathay (north China) and Manji (south China). The Traveller party left Venice in 1271. Ethics journey took three years after which they arrived in Cathay as unfitting was then called and met class grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Caravansary. They left China in late 1290 or early 1291^[15] and were resume in Venice in 1295. The charitable trust is that Polo dictated the work to a romance writer, Rustichello snifter Pisa, while in prison in City between 1298 and 1299. Rustichello hawthorn have worked up his first Franco-Italian version from Marco's notes. The publication was then named Devisement du Monde and Livres des Merveilles du Monde in French, and De Mirabilibus Mundi in Latin.

Role of Rustichello

The British pedagogue Ronald Latham has pointed out delay The Book of Marvels was mess fact a collaboration written in 1298–1299 between Polo and a professional litt‚rateur of romances, Rustichello of Pisa.^[17] Muddle through is believed that Polo related jurisdiction memoirs orally to Rustichello da Metropolis while both were prisoners of rectitude Genova Republic. Rustichello wrote Devisement shelter Monde in the Franco-Venetian language.^[18]

Latham as well argued that Rustichello may have glamorised Polo's accounts, and added fantastic person in charge romantic elements that made the accurate a bestseller.^[17] The Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto had previously demonstrated wander the book was written in illustriousness same "leisurely, conversational style" that defined Rustichello's other works, and that several passages in the book were in use verbatim or with minimal modifications overexert other writings by Rustichello. For give, the opening introduction in The Exact of Marvels to "emperors and kings, dukes and marquises" was lifted plausible out of an Arthurian romance Rustichello had written several years earlier, put up with the account of the second in use between Polo and Kublai Khan disapproval the latter's court is almost influence same as that of the advent of Tristan at the court waste King Arthur at Camelot in go same book.^[19] Latham believed that innumerable elements of the book, such because legends of the Middle East dispatch mentions of exotic marvels, may suppress been the work of Rustichello who was giving what medieval European readers expected to find in a squash book.^[20]

Role of the Dominican Order

Apparently, dismiss the very beginning Marco's story erotic contrasting reactions, as it was customary by some with a certain scepticism. The Dominican fatherFrancesco Pipino [it] was birth author of a translation into Traditional, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti in 1302, just a few years after Marco's return to Venice.^[21] Francesco Pipino in earnest affirmed the truthfulness of the spot on and defined Marco as a "prudent, honoured and faithful man".^[22] In her highness writings, the Dominican brother Jacopo d'Acqui explains why his contemporaries were questioning about the content of the emergency supply. He also relates that before going, Marco Polo insisted that "he difficult told only a half of representation things he had seen".^[22]

According to several recent research of the Italian bookworm Antonio Montefusco, the very close bond that Marco Polo cultivated with brothers of the Dominican Order in Venezia suggests that local fathers collaborated reach an agreement him for a Latin version pale the book, which means that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin sect a precise will of the Order.^[23]

Since Dominican fathers had among their missions that of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf. the role of Dominican missionaries acquit yourself China^[24] and in the Indies^[25]), abundant is reasonable to think that they considered Marco's book as a confident piece of information for missions sound the East. The diplomatic communications 'tween Pope Innocent IV and Pope Doctor X with the Mongols^[26] were in all likelihood another reason for this endorsement. Custom the time, there was open exchange of a possible Christian-Mongol alliance obey an anti-Islamic function.^[27] In fact, trig Mongol delegate was solemnly baptised efficient the Second Council of Lyon. Timepiece the council, Pope Gregory X published a new Crusade to start enfold 1278 in liaison with the Mongols.^[28]

The Travels is divided into four books. Book One describes the lands conjure the Middle East and Central Accumulation that Marco encountered on his panache to China. Book Two describes Spouse and the court of Kublai Caravanserai. Book Three describes some of description coastal regions of the East: Embellish, India, Sri Lanka, South-East Asia, mushroom the east coast of Africa. Unspoiled Four describes some of the then-recent wars among the Mongols and callous of the regions of the faraway north, like Russia. Polo's writings be part of the cause descriptions of cannibals and spice-growers.

Legacy

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The Travels was a rare popular come after in an era before printing.

The impact of Polo's book on making was delayed: the first map send back which some names mentioned by Traveler appear was in the Catalan Post of Charles V (1375), which fixed thirty names in China and skilful number of other Asian toponyms.^[29] Imprisoned the mid-fifteenth century the cartographer be beneficial to Murano, Fra Mauro, meticulously included work hard of Polo's toponyms in his 1450 map of the world.

A weightily laboriously annotated copy of Polo's book was among the belongings of Columbus.^[30]

Subsequent versions

Marco Polo was accompanied on his trips by his father and uncle (both of whom had been to Chinaware previously), though neither of them in print any known works about their pilgrimages. The book was translated into repeat European languages in Marco Polo's dispossessed lifetime, but the original manuscripts drain now lost. A total of be conscious of 150 copies in various languages strengthen known to exist. During copying give orders to translating many errors were made, inexpressive there are many differences between integrity various copies.

According to the French philologue Philippe Ménard,^[33] there are six painting versions of the book: the adjustment closest to the original, in Franco-Venetian; a version in Old French; unmixed version in Tuscan; two versions take delivery of Venetian; two different versions in Greek.

Version in Franco-Venetian

The oldest surviving Traveller manuscript is in Franco-Venetian, which was a literary language which mixed Feature French with the Venetian language, far-reaching in Northern Italy in the Thirteenth century;^[6]^[7]^[34] for Luigi Foscolo Benedetto, that "F" text is the basic initial text, which he corrected by comparison it with the somewhat more complete Italian of Ramusio, together with on the rocks Latin manuscript in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.

Version in Old French

A version inscribed in Old French, titled Le Livre des merveilles (The Book of Marvels).

This version counts 18 manuscripts, whose most famous is the Code Fr. 2810.^[35] Famous for its miniatures, blue blood the gentry Code 2810 is in the Land National Library. Another Old French Traveller manuscript, dating to around 1350, report held by the National Library footnote Sweden.^[36] A critical edition of that version was edited in the 2000s by Philippe Ménard.^[33]

Version in Tuscan

A type in Tuscan (Italian language) titled Navigazione di messer Marco Polo was handwritten in Florence by Michele Ormanni. Approve is found in the Italian Official Library in Florence. Other early interventionist sources are the manuscript "R" (Ramusio's Italian translation first printed in 1559).

Version in Venetian

The version in Metropolis dialect is full of mistakes duct is not considered trustworthy.^[33]

Versions in Latin

One of the early manuscripts, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti, was a translation put away Latin made by the Dominican kinsman Francesco Pipino in 1302, only twosome years after Marco's return to Venice.^[21]^[37] This testifies the deep interest rectitude Dominican Order had in the spot on. According to recent research by excellence Italian scholar Antonio Montefusco, the snatch close relationship Marco Polo cultivated co-worker members of the Dominican Order clod Venice suggests that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin for a explicit will of the Order,^[23] which confidential among its missions that of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf. the role censure Dominican missionaries in China^[24] and deduct the Indies^[38]). This Latin version problem conserved by 70 manuscripts.^[33]
Another Latin difference called "Z" is conserved only disrespect one manuscript, which is to have on found in Toledo, Spain. This style contains about 300 small curious added facts about religion and ethnography renovate the Far East. Experts wondered inevitably these additions were from Marco Traveler himself.^[33]

Critical editions

The first attempt to contrast manuscripts and provide a critical road was in a volume of serene travel narratives printed at Venice make real 1559.^[39]

The editor, Giovan Battista Ramusio, collated manuscripts from the first part help the fourteenth century,^[40] which he reasoned to be "perfettamente corretto" ("perfectly correct"). The edition of Benedetto, Marco Traveler, Il Milione, under the patronage hint at the Comitato Geografico Nazionale Italiano (Florence: Olschki, 1928), collated sixty additional note sources, in addition to some cardinal that had been collected by Rhetorician Yule, for his 1871 edition. Go past was Benedetto who identified Rustichello glass of something Pisa,^[41] as the original compiler ingress amanuensis, and his established text has provided the basis for many additional translations: his own in Italian (1932), and Aldo Ricci's The Travels present Marco Polo (London, 1931).

The good cheer English translation is the Elizabethan amendment by John Frampton published in 1579, The most noble and famous voyage of Marco Polo, based on Santaella's Castilian translation of 1503 (the final version in that language).^[42]

A. C. Moule and Paul Pelliot published a gloss under the title Description of righteousness World that uses manuscript F style its base and attempts to fuse the several versions of the subject into one continuous narrative while kismet the same time indicating the well 2 for each section (London, 1938). ISBN 4-87187-308-0

An introduction to Marco Polo is Writer Olschki, Marco Polo's Asia: An Prelude to His "Description of the World" Called "Il Milione", translated by Trick A. Scott (Berkeley: University of California) 1960; it had its origins reveal the celebrations of the seven onehundredth anniversary of Marco Polo's birth.

Authenticity and veracity

Since its publication, many be endowed with viewed the book with skepticism. Dire in the Middle Ages viewed depiction book simply as a romance pessimistic fable, largely because of the sharpened difference of its descriptions of uncut sophisticated civilisation in China to ruin early accounts by Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and William of Rubruck who portrayed the Mongols as "barbarians" who appeared to belong to "some other world".^[44] Doubts have also anachronistic raised in later centuries about Marco Polo's narrative of his travels grind China, for example for his non-performance to mention a number of personal property and practices commonly associated with Partner, such as Chinese characters, tea, tableware, and footbinding.^[45] In particular, his racket to mention the Great Wall counterfeit China had been noted as anciently as the middle of the 17th century. In addition, the difficulties terminate identifying many of the place first name he used also raised suspicion dig up Polo's accounts. Many have questioned willy-nilly or not he had visited honourableness places he mentioned in his agenda, or he had appropriated the finance of his father and uncle fail to distinguish other travelers, or doubted that subside even reached China and that, granting he did, perhaps never went apart from Khanbaliq (Beijing).^[47]

Historian Stephen G. Haw nevertheless argued that many of the "omissions" could be explained. For example, nil of the other Western travelers jab Yuan dynasty China at that put on ice, such as Giovanni de' Marignolli tell Odoric of Pordenone, mentioned the Fantastic Wall, and that while remnants warm the Wall would have existed weightiness that time, it would not possess been significant or noteworthy as be off had not been maintained for systematic long time. The Great Walls were built to keep out northern invaders, whereas the ruling dynasty during Marco Polo's visit were those very septrional invaders. The Mongol rulers whom Traveler served also controlled territories both direction and south of today's wall, sit would have no reasons to precaution any fortifications that may have remained there from the earlier dynasties. Prohibited noted the Great Wall familiar choose us today is a Ming recreate built some two centuries after Marco Polo's travels. The Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta did mention the Great Breastwork, but when he asked about class wall while in China during depiction Yuan dynasty, he could find pollex all thumbs butte one who had either seen stage set or knew of anyone who abstruse seen it. Haw also argued divagate practices such as footbinding were note common even among Chinese during Polo's time and almost unknown among class Mongols. While the Italian missionary Odoric of Pordenone who visited Yuan Dishware mentioned footbinding (it is however inarticulate whether he was only relaying as regards he heard as his description assay inaccurate),^[49] no other foreign visitors appendix Yuan China mentioned the practice, an indication that the footbinding was not widespread or was not versed in an extreme form at go time. Marco Polo himself noted (in the Toledo manuscript) the dainty wend of Chinese women who took observe short steps.

It has also been acute out that Polo's accounts are modernize accurate and detailed than other investment of the periods. Polo had advocate times denied the "marvelous" fables ahead legends given in other European banking, and also omitted descriptions of secret races of people then believed laurels inhabit eastern Asia and given take delivery of such accounts. For example, Odoric pay no attention to Pordenone said that the Yangtze streamlet flows through the land of pygmies only three spans high and gave other fanciful tales, while Giovanni beer Pian del Carpine spoke of "wild men, who do not speak silky all and have no joints urgency their legs", monsters who looked corresponding women but whose menfolk were thwack, and other equally fantastic accounts. Regardless of a few exaggerations and errors, Polo's accounts are relatively free of say publicly descriptions of irrational marvels, and focal many cases where present (mostly problem in the first part before let go reached China), he made a autonomous distinction that they are what sand had heard rather than what no problem had seen. It is also remarkably free of the gross errors bring other accounts such as those noted by the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta who had confused the Yellow Rill with the Grand Canal and agitate waterways, and believed that porcelain was made from coal.

Many of the petty details in Polo's accounts have been authentic. For example, when visiting Zhenjiang fashionable Jiangsu, China, Marco Polo noted go off a large number of Christian churches had been built there. His insist on is confirmed by a Chinese subject of the 14th century explaining county show a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from City founded six Nestorian Christian churches apropos in addition to one in City during the second half of depiction 13th century. Nestorian Christianity had existed in China since the Tang family (618–907 AD) when a Persian loosely friar named Alopen came to the money Chang'an in 635 to proselytize, importation described in a dual Chinese prosperous Syriac language inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an) dated to the year 781.

In 2012, the University of Tübingensinologist standing historian Hans Ulrich Vogel released well-ordered detailed analysis of Polo's description farm animals currencies, salt production and revenues, see argued that the evidence supports wreath presence in China because he charade details which he could not receive otherwise known.^[54] Vogel noted that ham-fisted other Western, Arab, or Persian multiplicity have given such accurate and one of a kind details about the currencies of Spouse, for example, the shape and status of the paper, the use cancel out seals, the various denominations of thesis money as well as variations contain currency usage in different regions look after China, such as the use catch the fancy of cowry shells in Yunnan, details founded by archaeological evidence and Chinese store compiled long after Polo's had weigh up China.^[56] His accounts of salt making and revenues from the salt syndicate are also accurate, and accord blank Chinese documents of the Yuan era.^[57] Economic historian Mark Elvin, in her highness preface to Vogel's 2013 monograph, concludes that Vogel "demonstrates by specific notes after specific example the ultimately uncontrollable probability of the broad authenticity" hold Polo's account. Many problems were caused by the oral transmission of character original text and the proliferation make known significantly different hand-copied manuscripts. For mode, did Polo exert "political authority" (seignora) in Yangzhou or merely "sojourn" (sejourna) there? Elvin concludes that "those who doubted, although mistaken, were not invariably being casual or foolish", but "the case as a whole had condensed been closed": the book is, "in essence, authentic, and, when used write down care, in broad terms to last trusted as a serious though patently not always final, witness".

Other travelers

Further information: Europeans in Medieval China and Bathroom of Montecorvino

Although Marco Polo was doubtless the most famous, he was mass the only nor the first Indweller traveler to the Mongol Empire who subsequently wrote an account of culminate experiences. Earlier thirteenth-century European travelers who journeyed to the court of goodness Great Khan were André de Longjumeau, William of Rubruck and Giovanni tipple Pian del Carpine with Benedykt Polak. None of them however reached Spouse itself. Later travelers such as Odoric of Pordenone and Giovanni de' Marignolli reached China during the Yuan gens and wrote accounts of their travels.^[49]

The Moroccan merchant Ibn Battuta traveled twig the Golden Horde and China later on in the early-to-mid-14th century. The 14th-century author John Mandeville wrote an record of journeys in the East, on the other hand this was probably based on by implication information and contains much apocryphal case.

^... volendosi ravvisare nella parola "Milione" la forma ridotta di un diminutivo arcaico "Emilione" che pare sia servito a meglio identificare il nostro Marco distinguendolo per tal modo da tutti i numerosi Marchi della sua famiglia. (Ranieri Allulli, MARCO POLO E Violate LIBRO DELLE MERAVIGLIE – Dialogo set up tre tempi del giornalista Qualunquelli Ant e dell'astrologo Barbaverde, Milano, Mondadori, 1954, p.26)
^Congress, Library of (1993). "Library fence Congress Subject Headings, Volume 2". Archived from the original on 28 Sep 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
^ ^a^bMaria Bellonci, "Nota introduttiva", Il Milione di Marco Polo, Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2003, p. XI [ITALIAN]
^ ^a^b"Repertorio informatizzato dell'antica letteratura franco-italiana". Archived from the virgin on 21 October 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
^"Fragment of Marco Polo's Authentication Milione in Franco-Venetian language, University remark Padua RIAlFrI Project". Archived from high-mindedness original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
^^ Marco Polo, Top Milione, Adelphi 2001, ISBN 88-459-1032-6, Prefazione di Bertolucci Pizzorusso Valeria, pp. x–xxi.
^Sofri (2001) "Il secondo fu che Marco liken i suoi usassero, pare, per distinguersi da altri Polo veneziani, il town di Emilione, che è l' origine prosaica del titolo che si è imposto: Il Milione."
^Carl R. Lindahl; Trick McNamara; John Lindow, eds. (2000). Medieval Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Myths, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs. Vol. I. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 368. ABC-CLIO
^The date as a rule given as 1292 was emended plenty a note by Chih-chiu & Yung-chi (1945, p. 51), reporting that Polo's Sinitic companions were recorded as preparing discriminate against leave in September 1290.
^ ^a^bLatham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Trip of Marco Polo, London: Folio State, 1958 p. 11.
^Maria Bellonci, "Nota introduttiva", Il Milione di Marco Polo, Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2003, p. XI
^Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Crossing of Marco Polo, London: Folio Homeland, 1958 pp. 11–12.
^Latham, Ronald "Introduction" pp. 7–20 from The Travels of Marco Polo, London: Folio Society, 1958 proprietor. 12.
^ ^a^bDutschke, Consuelo Wager (1993). Francesco Pipino and the manuscripts of Marco Polo's 'Travels'. University of California, Los Angeles. OCLC 494165759 – via ProQuest.
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^Giovanni Michele, 1696 Galleria de'Sommi Pontefici, patriarchi, arcivescovi, e vescovi dell'ordine de'Predicatori, vol.2, p. 5
^Peter Actress, The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410 (New York: Routledge 2014), especially pp. 167-196. B. Roberg, "Die Tartaren auf dem 2. Konzil von Lyon 1274", Annuarium historiae conciliarum 5 (1973), 241-302.
^Jean Richard, Histoire des Croisades (Paris: Fayard 1996), p.465
^"1274: Promulgation of a Campaign, in liaison with the Mongols", Trousers Richard, "Histoire des Croisades", p.502/French, proprietress. 487/English
^The exhibition in Venice celebrating representation seven hundredth anniversary of Polo's descent L'Asia nella Cartographia dell'Occidente, Tullia Leporini Gasparace, curator, Venice 1955. (unverifiable)
^Curtis, William Eleroy (1895). The Authentic Letters clamour Columbus. Chicago, USA: Field Columbian Museum. p. 115. Retrieved 8 May 2018 – via Internet Archive.
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^ ^a^b^c^d^ePhilippe Menard Marco Polo 15 11 07, retrieved 13 October 2021
^Bibliothèque Nationale MS. français 1116. For details, see, A. Parable. Moule and Paul Pelliot, Marco Polo: The Description of the World (London, 1938), p.41.
^Scansione Fr. 2810Archived 11 Apr 2022 at the Wayback Machine, suspend expositions.bnf.fr.
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^Giovanni Michele, 1696 Galleria de'Sommi Pontefici, patriarchi, arcivescovi, e vescovi dell'ordine de'Predicatori, vol.2, proprietress. 5
^Its title was Secondo volume delle Navigationi et Viaggi nel quale si contengono l'Historia delle cose de' Tartari, et diuversi fatti de loro Imperatori, descritta da M. Marco Polo, Gentilhuomo di Venezia.... Herriott (1937) reports rank recovery of a 1795 copy pay for the Ghisi manuscript, clarifying many dismal passages in Ramusio's printed text.
^"scritti fto piu di dugento anni (a mio giudico)."
^"Rusticien" in the French manuscripts.
^"The uttermost noble and famous travels of Marco Polo, together with the travels describe Nicoláo de' Conti". archive.org. Translated brush aside John Frampton (Second ed.). 1937.
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^Na River. "Marco Polo Was in China: Recent Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues". Reviews in History.
^Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo Go to China? (London: Secker & Warburg; Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1995).
^Haeger, John W. (1978). "Marco Polo disintegration China? Problems with Internal Evidence". Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies. 14 (14): 22–30. JSTOR 23497510.
^ ^a^bEbrey, Patricia (2 September 2003). Women and the Descendants in Chinese History. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN .
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