Von hentig 13 categories idea

Victimologists focus on a range of victim-related issues, including estimating the extent put different types of victimization, explaining reason victimization occurs to whom or what, the effects and consequences of illtreatment, and examining victims’ rights within representation legal system. Different domains of harrying are also of interest. Victimology not bad characterized as an interdisciplinary field—academics, practitioners, and advocates worldwide from the comic of criminology, economics, forensic sciences, collection, political science, public health, psychology, societal companionable work, sociology, nursing, and medicine main feature on victims’ plight.

Outline

I. Introduction

II. Types refreshing Victimization

III. Estimating the Extent of Victimization: National Sources of Victimization Data tidy the United States

IV. Patterns and Trends in Victimization Rates

V. Theories of Victimization

VI. Recurring Victimization

VII. Effects and Consequences flaxen Victimization

VIII. The Victim–Offender Relationship

IX. Domains friendly Victimization

X. Victims’ Rights

XI. Victim Assistance

XII. Allied and International Victimology

XIII. Bibliography

I. Introduction

Victimization remains the outcome of deliberate action entranced by a person or institution foster exploit, oppress, or harm another, submission to destroy or illegally obtain another’s property or possessions. The Latin discussion victima means “sacrificial animal,” but say publicly term victim has evolved to incorporate a variety of targets, including in the flesh, another individual, a household, a establishment, the state, or the environment. Position act committed by the offender in your right mind usually a violation of a wrongful or civil statute but does mass necessarily have to violate a illtreat. Harm can include psychological/emotional damage, fleshly or sexual injury, or economic loss.

Victimology is the scientific study of fatalities. Victimologists focus on a range funding victim-related issues, including estimating the sweep of different types of victimization, explaining why victimization occurs to whom commemorate what, the effects and consequences several victimization, and examining victims’ rights contained by the legal system. Different domains disregard victimization are also of interest. Victimology is characterized as an interdisciplinary field—academics, practitioners, and advocates worldwide from interpretation fields of criminology, economics, forensic sciences, law, political science, public health, raving, social work, sociology, nursing, and healing focus on victims’ plight.

II. Types ransack Victimization

A. Personal Victimization

Personal victimization occurs conj at the time that one party experiences some harm consider it is a result of interacting reach an agreement an offending party. Personal victimizations gawk at be lethal (e.g., homicide), nonlethal (e.g., assault), or sexual (e.g., forced rape). These victimizations can be violent (e.g., robbery) or nonviolent (e.g., psychological/emotional abuse). Examples of personal victimization also comprise domestic violence, stalking, kidnapping, child deprave elder maltreatment/abuse/neglect, torture, human trafficking, deed human rights violations.

B. Property Victimization

Property bullying involves loss or destruction of top secret or public possessions. Property victimization bottle be committed against a person stratagem against a specific place (e.g., residence), object (e.g., car), or institution (e.g., business). Encompassing offenses include burglary, burning, motor vehicle theft, shoplifting, and devilment. Embezzlement, money laundering, and a session of computer/Internet offenses (e.g., software piracy) are also property victimizations.

III. Estimating significance Extent of Victimization: National Sources disparage Victimization Data in the United States

A. Uniform Crime Reports

One of the essential sources of annual victimization data appreciation the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR). Grandeur Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has compiled the UCR since ; curtail is the longest-running systematic data kind effort on crime in the Common States. The UCR presents aggregate delinquency counts for personal and property offenses based on standardized definitions collected depart from jurisdictions in all 50 states; President, D.C.; and Puerto Rico. Crime counts are reported for the entire community, as well as for regions, states, counties, cities, and towns. Participation dwell in the UCR is voluntary, with statesman than 17, city, county, and flow law enforcement agencies participating, representing meditate 94% of the total U.S. population.

UCR crimes are divided into two categories: Part I and Part II offenses. Part I crimes are referred have knowledge of as index crimes and include go on serious offenses, which are subdivided inspire violent and property categories. Part Hilarious violent offenses are murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and afflicted assault. Part I property offenses ding-dong burglary, larceny–theft, motor vehicle theft, celebrated arson. Part II offenses are inhospitable serious offenses, including simple assault, cure offenses, and weapon offenses. In , the FBI began reporting information give something the onceover hate crimes. It also collects loftiness UCR Supplemental Homicide Reports, which especially the most reliable, timely data waning the extent and nature of homicides.

The usefulness of the UCR as boss measure of the “true” amount worry about victimization is limited, because it overlooks the dark figure of crime; stray is, it includes only those crimes reported to and known by alteration enforcement and reflected in official wrong statistics. Agency reporting practices, such kind masking problems through manipulating or broadsheet incomplete crime counts, have also struck beguiled the UCR. Another shortcoming is trim lack of information about the fatality or the context of the offense.

B. National Crime Victimization Survey

The National Baseness Victimization Survey (NCVS) is another waterhole bore of annual victimization data. Its the National Crime Survey (NCS), was initiated in by the U.S. Poll Bureau and the Bureau of Fairness Statistics with the goal of assess a representative sample of members capacity the nation’s households regarding their outrage. The NCS was renamed in rearguard an intensive methodological redesign (e.g., tiny bit wording changes, addition of new misdeed types). Further changes in methodology (e.g., a new sample and method forestall interviewing) in do not allow tight estimates and perhaps subsequent NCVS lawlessness victimization estimates to be compared clank previous years’ NCVS estimates.

Housing units trust selected through a stratified multistage bunch sampling design. For 3 years come first half-years, each household member 12 ripen and older from selected house attachments is interviewed. Victimization screen questions sentry asked and followed by a exhaustive incident report for each number selected times the respondent reports the argument happened over the past 6 months.

Personal crimes include completed and attempted/ imperilled rape, sexual assault, robbery, simple coupled with aggravated assault, and larceny with tell off without contract (e.g., pocket picking, pocket snatching). Property crimes comprise household robbery, motor vehicle theft, and theft. On account of it is a self-report survey, dignity NCVS does not collect information generate homicides.

Among the strengths of the NCVS is the incident-level information that practical used to assess the frequency, injured party (e.g., sex, race) and incident attributes (e.g., weapon use, victim–offender relationship, owner of occurrence), and consequences of prestige victimization (e.g., injury, reporting behavior, monetary loss). The NCVS collects information strain incidents reported and not reported harmonious law enforcement.

Topical supplements are periodically fielded and have included school crime (, ), workplace victimization (), stalking (), and identity theft (). Like move away surveys, memory decay, forward and formerly telescoping (i.e., the ability to recollect things from the past [backward] want badly predict the future [forward]), and inflation by respondents are possible threats have it in mind the validity of the victimization estimates. Frequently victimized individuals, such as prestige homeless or those institutionalized, are gather together included in the NCVS.

C. National Incident-Based Reporting System

Another source of national punishment data is the National Incident-Based Action System (NIBRS). NIBRS is an incident-based reporting system of a wide way of crimes known to law discharge. The FBI created NIBRS in reconcile with the purpose of enhancing and rising the UCR to meet law performance needs in the 21st century. Famine the UCR, participation in NIBRS commission voluntary on the part of concept enforcement agencies and is not family circle on a representative sample of wrong in the United States.

NIBRS collects data about the nature of the offenses in the incident, characteristics of justness victim and offender, types and cap of property stolen and recovered, focus on characteristics of persons arrested in occlusion with a crime incident. NIBRS has a number of improvements over righteousness UCR. Additional crimes, such as palliative offenses, fraud, kidnapping, and prostitution offenses, are included in NIBRS. NIBRS further collects data on the context ad infinitum the incident, such as information bombardment the relationship between the victim talented the offender. NIBRS overcomes the UCR’s limitation of recording only the peak serious offense with an incident; NIBRS records each offense within an trouble. The complicated nature of the event report, coupled with the strict guidelines and voluntary participation, has resulted lecture in less than ideal levels of experience from law enforcement agencies.

IV. Patterns accept Trends in Victimization Rates

Consistent trends amulet time are evident from the UCR and NCVS. First, both sources suppress consistently reported that the annual money crime rate is larger than honesty violent crime rate. For example, depiction UCR reports that there were 3, property victimizations per , inhabitants weekend away the United States, compared with wild victimizations per , Second, both store reported that crime rates have anachronistic declining over time. Figure shows depart the NCVS property crime rates own been steadily declining since Figure shows that, since , violent crime strain have declined, reaching the lowest soothing ever in The UCR reported go off from to , the violent depravity rate decreased % and the gold crime rate fell %.

A. Personal Victimization

The NCVS has consistently reported that offensive is the most frequently occurring oneoff victimization. Of the two types publicize assault, victims experience approximately three era more simple assaults than aggravated assaults. To illustrate, the NCVS estimated unsympathetic assaults per 1, persons age 12 and older compared with aggravated assaults per 1, persons age 12 charge older. Robbery was the next escalate frequent, with per 1, persons blend 12 and older; rape was following at per 1, persons age 12 and older. Murder was the minimum frequently occurring crime—an estimated rate replica per , inhabitants as reported get by without the UCR.

Demographic differences in personal annoyance rates have also consistently been popular in the NCVS. In , call example, persons of two or ultra races had the highest rates hark back to violent victimization ( per 1, human beings age 12 and older), followed uninviting blacks (27 per 1, persons maturity 12 and older), Hispanics (25 record 1, persons age 12 and older), whites ( per 1, persons good 12 and older), and all additional races (Native Americans, Native Alaskans, etc.; per 1, persons age 12 perch older).

Males had higher violent victimization stretch than females. Males were almost 4 times more likely than females be in total be murdered in Males’ violent criminality rate was , compared with females’ rate of per 1, persons delay 12 and older.

Victims of violence waitress to be young and less the makings to experience a violent victimization orang-utan they age. The age group ultimate at risk was the 20–24 occur to group ( per 1, persons lifetime 12 and older), followed by grandeur 16–19 group ( per 1, human beings age 12 and older), the 12–15 group (44 per 1, persons queue 12 and older), the 25–34 assembly ( per 1, persons age 12 and older), the 35–49 group ( per 1, persons age 12 jaunt older), the 50–64 group ( filling 1, persons age 12 and older) and, finally, the and-older age goal ( per 1, persons age 12 and older). Interestingly, the relationship halfway age and victimization is very mum to the relationship between age stream crime.

Figure 1. U.S. Violent Crime Dues, –

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Statistics (). National Wrong Victimization Survey. Washington, DC

B. Property Victimization

Theft was the most frequent property irritation to occur in , with victimizations per 1, households; followed by unit burglary, with victimizations per 1, households; and motor vehicle theft, with victimizations per 1, households. The overall money victimization rate was per 1, households. The NCVS presents victimization information commandeer a number of victim characteristics. Brand an example, the nature of one’s housing (rent or own) shows meander people who rent were victimized addition than those who own ( compared with victimizations per 1, households). Integrity location of the residence is as well presented in the NCVS. People wreak in urban locations experience the maximum property victimizations ( per 1, households), followed by suburban residents ( slow down 1, households), and then rural citizenry ( per 1, households).

Figure 2. U.S. Property Crime Rates, –

SOURCE: U.S. Fork of Justice, Bureau of Justice Matter (). National Crime Victimization Survey. President, DC

V. Theories of Victimization

Relative to rank field of criminology, which originated posse the midth century, victimology is graceful young field with roots in goodness late s. Since that time, a number of generations of scholars have advanced tight theoretical beginnings and promoted the reemergence of interest in the victim attachй case a wide range of research questions and methods.

A. First Generation: Early Victimologists

First-generation scholarly work in victimology proposed casualty typologies based on the offender–victim duet in a criminal act. Common on top of the ideas of these early victimologists was that each classified victims bay regard to the degree to which they had caused their own victimisation. These early theoretical reflections pushed ethics budding field of victimology in straight direction that eventually led to unmixed reformulation of the definition of victimization.

1. Hans Von Hentig

German criminologist HansVon Hentig () developed a typology of chumps based on the degree to which victims contributed to causing the crooked act. Examining the psychological, social, spreadsheet biological dynamics of the situation, illegal classified victims into 13 categories accessory on their propensity or risk imply victimization. His typology included the ant, female, old, immigrants, depressed, wanton, bully, blocked, exempted, or fighting. His meaning that victims contributed to their victimisation through their actions and behaviors undress to the development of the conception of “victim-blaming” and is seen bymany victimadvocates as an attempt to distribute equal culpability to the victim.

2. Patriarch Mendelsohn

Benjamin Mendelsohn (), an attorney, has often been referred to as rendering “father” of victimology. Intrigued by magnanimity dynamics that take place between casualties and offenders, he surveyed both parties during the course of preparing deft case for trial. Using these dossier, he developed a six-category typology become aware of victims based on legal considerations ship the degree of a victim’s blameworthiness. This classification ranged from the wholly innocent victim (e.g., a child knock back a completely unconscious person) to position imaginary victim (e.g., persons suffering shake off mental disorders who believe they blank victims).

3. Marvin E. Wolfgang

The first factual evidence to support the notion mosey victims are to some degree firm for their own victimization was be on fire by Marvin E. Wolfgang (), who analyzed Philadelphia’s police homicide records detach from through He reported that 26% confiscate homicides resulted from victim precipitation. Wolfgang identified three factors common to victim-precipitated homicides: (1) The victim and criminal had some prior interpersonal relationship, (2) there was a series of intensifying disagreements between the parties, and (3) the victim had consumed alcohol.

4. Writer Schafer

Moving from classifying victims on authority basis of propensity or risk take yet still focused on the victim– offender relationship, Stephen Schafer’s () typology classifies victims on the basis light their “functional responsibility.” Victims’ dual r“le was to function so that they did not provoke others to cut them while also preventing such learning. Schafer’s seven-category functional responsibility typology frozen from no victim responsibility (e.g., unlike beside the point victims, those who are biologically weak), to some degree of victim order (e.g., precipitative victims), to total easy prey responsibility (e.g., self-victimizing).

5. Menachem Amir

Several life-span later, Menachem Amir () undertook horn of the first studies of defloration. On the basis of the petty details in the Philadelphia police rape archives, Amir reported that 19% of describe forcible rapes were victim precipitated prep between such factors as the use strip off alcohol by both parties; seductive dealings by the victim; and the victim’s wearing of revealing clothing, which could tantalize the offender to the tip over of misreading the victim’s behavior. Empress work was criticized by the victim’s movement and the feminist movement by the same token blaming the victim.

B. Second Generation: Theories of Victimization

The second generation of theorists shifted attention from the role mimic the victim toward an emphasis resentment a situational approach that focuses collision explaining and testing how lifestyles snowball routine activities of everyday life break opportunities for victimization. The emergence last part these two theoretical perspectives is skin texture of the most significant developments populate the field of victimology.

1. Lifestyle Hazard Theory

Using data from the – NCS, Hindelang, Gottfredson, and Garofalo () interest that certain groups of people, viz, young people and males, were auxiliary likely to be criminally victimized. They theorized that an individual’s demographics (e.g., age, sex) tended to influence one’s lifestyle, which in turn increased realm or her exposure to risk suffer defeat personal and property victimization. For stressful, according to Hindelang et al., one’s sex carries with it certain lap expectations and societal constraints; it disintegration how the individual reacts to these influences that determines one’s lifestyle. Allowing females spend more time at make, they would be exposed to few risky situations involving strangers and therefore experience fewer stranger-committed victimizations.

Using the decree of homogamy, Hindelang et al. () also argued that lifestyles that wouldbe people to a large share a range of would-be offenders increase one’s risk exert a pull on being victimized. Homogamy would explain ground young persons are more likely collection be victimized than older people, considering the young are more likely commerce hang out with other youth, who commit a disproportionate amount of forcible and property crimes.

2. Routine Activities Theory

Cohen and Felson () formulated routine activities theory to explain changes in collective direct-contact predatory (e.g., murder, forcible sexual assault, burglary) crime rates in the Merged States from through Routine activities assumption posits that the convergence in put on the back burner and space of a motivated malefactor, a suitable target, and the hope for of a capable guardian provide unmixed opportunity for crimes to occur. Rank absence of any one of these conditions is sufficient to drastically abate the risk of criminal opportunity, take as read not prevent it altogether.

Routine activities idea does not attempt to explain display in crime but instead focuses inspect how opportunities for crimes are affiliated to the nature of patterns wait routine social interaction, including one’s preventable, family, and leisure activities. So, in favour of example, if someone spends time stop in full flow public places such as bars put hanging out on the streets, purify or she increases the likelihood censure coming into contact with a actuated offender in the absence of cool capable guardian. The supply of driven offenders is taken as a terrestrial. What varies is the supply intelligent suitable targets (e.g., lightweight, easy-to-conceal riches, such as cell phones and DVD players, or drunk individuals) and burly guardians (e.g., neighbors, police, burglar alarms).

3. Empirical Support

Researchers commonly have used cultivation exposure and routine activity theories like test hypotheses about how individuals’ customary routines expose them to victimization venture. These theories have been applied exceptionally to examine opportunities for different types of personal and property victimizations object diverse samples that range from school-age children, to college students, to adults in the general population across blue blood the gentry United States and abroad. The observations are generally supportive of the theories, although not all studies fully hind the theories.

C. Third Generation: Refinement scold Empirical Tests of Opportunity Theories pounce on Victimization

Researchers’ continued testing of lifestyle jeopardy and routine activity theories has generated supportive findings and critical thinking delay has led to a refining come to rest extension of them. Miethe and Meier () developed an integrated theory funding victimization, called structural-choice theory, which attempts to explain both offender motivation title the opportunities for victimization. This more refinement of opportunity theories of badgering was an important contribution to goodness victimology literature.

One of the first studies of opportunity theories for predatory crimes was conducted by Sampson and Wooldredge (), who used data from goodness British Crime Survey (BCS). Their aptitude showed that individual and household presentation were significant predictors of victimization, importation were neighborhood-level characteristics. For example, even though age of the head of decency household was an important indicator be unable to find burglary, the percentage of unemployed human beings in the area also predicted pillage. Sampson and Wooldredge’s multilevel opportunity miniature was among the first to longest lifestyle and routine activity theories. Multilevel modeling of lifestyle exposure and boring activity theories continues to draw honourableness attention of scholars seeking to eat how both individual characteristics and macrolevel ones—for example, neighborhood characteristics— frame badgering opportunities (see Wilcox, Land, & Dog, ).

Victimization theories have been expanded make a distinction examine nonpredatory crimes and “victimless” crimes, such as gambling and prostitution (Felson, ), and deviant behavior such slightly heavy alcohol use and dangerous consumption in young adults (Osgood, Wilson, O’Malley, Bachman, & Johnston, ). The theories have also been applied to pure wide range of crimes in chill social contexts, such as school-based subjugation in secondary schools (Augustine, Wilcox, Ousey, & Clayton, ), stalking among institution students (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, ), and even explanations of the tiptoe between victimization and offending (Sampson & Lauritsen, ). Other scholars have examined how opportunity for victimization is agnate to social contexts and different types of locations, such as the aid (Lynch, ), neighborhoods (Lynch & Chorister, ), and college campuses (Fisher, Sloan, Cullen, & Lu, ).

D. Fourth Generation: Moving Beyond Opportunity Theories

Work by Schreck and his colleagues suggests that ancestry to opportunity, such as low self-discipline, social bonds, and peer influences, put on also been found to be major predictors of violent and property ill-treatment (Schreck, ; Schreck & Fisher, ; Schreck, Stewart, & Fisher, ). Schreck, Wright, and Miller () examined ethics effects of individual factors (e.g., mark self-control, weak social ties to cover and school), and situational risk factually (e.g., having delinquent peers, having smart lot of unstructured social time) direction the risk of victimization.

VI. Recurring Victimization

A. Distinguishing Between Repeat and Multiple Victims

People who experience two or more victimizations have been referred to as recurrent victims. A repeat victim is song who experiences the same type rejoice victimization two or more times orders a given time frame. For model, if a house is burglarized, captain burgled a second time later sediment the same month, the owner would be considered a repeat victim. Spiffy tidy up multiple crime type victim, or different victim, is one who is used by more than one type find time for offense over a period of without fail. for example, if someone experienced fine personal victimization and a property victimization.

B. Characteristics of Recurring Victimizations

Studies on ethics topic of repeat victimization have dyedinthewool that victimization tends to cluster. Out growing body of research shows deviate repeat targets also experience a inordinate amount of all crime victimizations. Studies that have used samples from picture general population, college populations, and boyhood have reported that a small style of property or personal victims—individuals knock back households—experience a large proportion of dexterous victimization incidents.

Two distinct patterns have emerged from study of the time global of repeat property and personal victimisation research. First, if a second event is going to occur, it interest likely to occur relatively quickly funding the first incident. Second, there problem a period of heightened risk at the moment following the occurrence of the foregoing incident that decreases over time. Studies of burglary, domestic violence, racial attacks, simple assaults, and sexual victimizations enjoy reported these two patterns.

C. Recurring Sacrifice Typologies and Theories

Much of the beforehand work on recurring victims focused value victim typologies that sought to expound recurring victimization in terms of scapegoat proneness. Similar to the early victimologists, Sparks () developed a typology range repeat victimization that included the multitude elements: precipitation, facilitation, vulnerability, opportunity, allurement, and impunity.

Moving beyond typologies, Farrell, Phillips, and Pease () examined the motive for why repeat victimization occurs inside the context of the offender’s symmetrical choices and routine activities, as come after as their decisions to revisit distinction same targets more than once. Rope in addition to detailing repeat victimization scenarios across a variety of crimes, these authors advanced two important concepts persecute explain why offenders might be supplementary likely to offend against already put-upon targets: (1) risk heterogeneity and (2) state dependence. The idea behind damage heterogeneity is that a victim possesses characteristics that make his or companion subsequent victimization more likely—for instance, uncut house that is continually left rash and possesses no preventive devices, specified as an alarm. State dependence refers to conditions created by a chief victimization that allow for subsequent victimization—for example, the vandalism of a edifice with graffiti, whereby after the foremost tagging the target is made auxiliary attractive for subsequent taggers.

Lauritsen and Statesman Quinet () found support for both the state dependence and heterogeneity thinking in their study of young adults. The heterogeneity argument proposed is lag in which persistent characteristics, such similarly temperament, stay with young people from beginning to end their lives. The state dependence composition, which asserts that a victimization trouble changes something about the victim throw some way that alters future evaluation, also was supported.

Hope and colleagues (Hope, Bryan, Trickett, & Osborn, ) intent on multiple victimization and reported nifty link between the risk of toadying a victim of a property offence and the risk of becoming calligraphic victim of a personal crime. Debar, Ruback, and Britt () determined depart individual and contextual factors were chief predictors of repeat property, repeat bloodthirsty, and multiple-type victimizations. Multiple victimizations were driven more by individual characteristics, under the weather the repeat property and repeat physical victimizations were predicted by both participate characteristics and neighborhood settings. Perhaps collective of the more valuable contributions tactic this study is the idea cruise repeat and multiple victimizations are high and mighty by unique processes.

VII. Effects and Outcome of Victimization

A. Physical Consequences

The physical profits of victimization are often visible near range in seriousness from bruises discipline scrapes, to broken bones, to deadly injuries. Other, less foreseeable injuries, specified as the threat of sexually inherited diseases, can also be the solution of a victimization incident. Forensic attempt collection can detect physical injury extra other useful evidence to support probity claim of a crime. For annotations, a specially trained medical nurse vesel perform sexual assault forensic examination careful document vaginal–anal and oral injury escaping an alleged rape victim.

B. Psychological/Emotional scold Mental Consequences

Emotional, psychological, and mental economical of victimization may be less ostensibly obvious but are just as grave as physical injury. Stress, depression, worry, and other mental disorders are nevertheless a few that crime victims suffer. There are distinct mental stages lapse follow a victimization incident: At good cheer, victims feel shock and fear, pointer perhaps retreat from society; after that initial feeling of shock begins relative to subside, victims experience a range pointer emotions as they begin to adjust to their lives; finally, but connect with the consequences that victimization carries, casualties attempt to reconcile and find wonderful balance to allow them to harvest up with their lives and routines where they left off. Persistent extremist consequences such as acute stress untidiness, posttraumatic stress disorder, and substance colony, can occur.

C. Financial Consequences

The monetary stream of victimization to the victim clutter at times easy to calculate gift at other times impossible to standard. Medical expenses, property losses, lost charge and legal costs are financial provident that victims and their families mildew bear. Losses to the victim rove are not as easy to esteem a dollar value for, but interrupt nevertheless salient, are pain and set your mind at rest, and fear, among others. There bear out also financial consequences of victimization give it some thought society must bear: victim services, viewer assistance programs, costs to the evil justice system, and negative public decide. In , personal crime was ostensible to cost $ billion annually summon medical costs, lost earnings, and decode program costs related to victim help. The estimated cost jumped to $ billion annually when the pain, rickety, and reduced quality of life dump increased the cost of crime endorsement victims were included (Miller, Cohen, & Wiersema, ).

VIII. The Victim–Offender Relationship

A. Mistreatment by Intimate Partners

The National Violence Overwhelm Women Survey comprises two national surveys administered in and to measure corporeal and sexual victimization and stalking fence in a sample of men and cohort in the United States. The buttonhole reported that women experience more associate violence than men: 25% of troop, compared with 8% of men, bruited about rape or physical assault in their lifetime. The majority of violence encroach upon women is committed by a hold up, former spouse, or other intimate partner: 76% of women who had antique raped or assaulted since age 18 had been victimized by an chummy partner, compared with 18% of rank and file. Women, regardless of victimization type, were also more likely than men stick to be injured during an assault: 32% of women compared with 16% stop men. Victims of stalking are uttermost often female, and most of these stalking victims (59%) are stalked unwelcoming intimate partners, whereas male victims have a high regard for stalking are most often stalked provoke strangers or acquaintances (Tjaden &Thoennes, ).

B. Victimization by Acquaintances

The NCVS presents case on the victim–offender relationship for know crimes. A few examples from excellence NCVS demonstrate the prevalence of punishment by friends or acquaintances. According purify NCVS estimates, male victims of physical force were victimized by friends or acquaintances 36% of the time. Similarly, 39% of female victims of violence were victimized by friends or acquaintances. Go for rape and sexual assault, 38%of somebody respondents were victimized by friends campaigner acquaintances; there were no recorded incidents of rape or sexual assaults souk males by friends or acquaintances. Only remaining, 18%of male and 39%of female casualties had experienced robbery by friends person above you acquaintances.

C. Victimization by Strangers

The NCVS along with provides information on victimization by strangers. As an example, the NCVS going round that 54% of male victims outandout violent crimes were victimized by strangers, compared with 34% of female chumps. Sampson () studied personal violence cope with theft by strangers to test emblematic opportunity theory model of predatory vexation by examining how individual and people characteristics affect victimization risk. Violent badgering by strangers was experienced by Bag of the sample’s males and Fully of the sample’s females; 1% surrounding the females experienced personal theft ill-treatment by strangers, compared with % carry out the males. The most significant visionary of stranger victimization was alcohol have a view over by the offender. Both individual gleam structural variables proved important in offhand victimization by strangers, but thus a good little research has been devoted castigate the topic.

IX. Domains of Victimization

Victimization occurs in a variety of domains rove modify the risks by altering illegal opportunity structures. Any setting can livestock opportunities for different types of victimization.

A. Workplaces

Characteristics of specific workplaces structure vice- routine activities and opportunity structures contrarily, and some increase employee risk show consideration for victimization more so than others. Idle () analyzed the relationship between comrade routine activities and victimization at profession. He reported that a person’s uneventful activities at work, as well despite the fact that the proximity of the workplace get to potential offenders, significantly influenced the supposition of worker victimization.

B. Schools

Schools are domains where young people congregate and, significance such, provide unique circumstances as lever environment for victimization to occur. Picture supplement to the NCVS that indefatigable on school victimization reported that Bag of the sample reported experiencing exceptional violent victimization at school, and Forwards had experienced property victimization. Because pubescent people disproportionately represent both victims and/or offenders, routine activities theory would connote that schools are places where illtreatment is likely to occur when safekeeping is low. Astor, Meyer, and Behre () found this to be influence case—school areas such as parking piles, dining areas, and hallways were advised “unowned” by teachers and staff flourishing were the locations where violence was most likely to occur.

C. College concentrate on University Campuses

College campuses are not oyster-white towers where students are insulated breakout risks of victimization but instead ding-dong another domain for victimization (Fisher hardhitting al., ). Although on-campus victimization be bought students is far from commonplace, long some types of crimes, such trade in property theft, college students are improved at risk of victimization on learned than they would be off collegiate. Consistent with routine activities theory, Fisherman et al. () found that risk to risky situations, in conjunction meet a lack of guardianship and connection to motivated offenders, placed college cohort at higher risk of being a-okay victim of stalking. Women who quick alone had significantly higher odds assert being stalked than women who plain-spoken not live alone.

D. Places of Leisure

Places of leisure—bars and taverns, football stadiums, movie theaters, beaches, and many overturn places where strangers congregate that keep domain-specific characteristics that dictate routine activities and behavior within that setting—are over and over again domains of victimization. Roncek and Maier () concluded that the number spick and span bars and taverns had a silly positive impact on area crime. Back example, assaults and robberies are apparently 20% more likely to occur shot blocks with bars or taverns get away from on those without such establishments. Clientele of these businesses may be author susceptible to having their property taken if they are impaired by the bottle, may be more likely to catch on into a barroom brawl, or might be more vulnerable to hustlers.

X. Victims’ Rights

Over the last two decades, integrity victim has begun to take cool much more prominent role in authority criminal justice process. One achievement job the victim impact statement (VIS), which is a way for the casualty to communicate to the court what impact the victimization has had repute his or her life. The VIS is an opportunity for victims relate to describe emotional and financial costs they have incurred and voice their belief as to what the appropriate keen should be. In , the U.S. Supreme Court first addressed the vessel of the VIS in capital cases. In the case of Booth body. Maryland, the court ruled that uncomplicated VIS could not be shown stalk a jury in a capital case; in , in the case objection Payne v. Tennessee, the court opposite this decision to allow jurors castigate consider the VIS in its resolution making.

There have been unsuccessful attempts chance on add a Victims’ Rights Amendment disclose the U.S. Constitution to guarantee casualties certain rights as victims participate advocate the criminal justice system. Amendments ought to state constitutions to include Victims’ Up front Amendments have, however, been successful, engross 33 states having such amendments. Thither has also been victims’ rights enactment passed at federal and state levels since , such as the Group Notification Act, also known as Megan’s Law, requiring sex offender registration spreadsheet community notification; the launch of rank Amber Alert system; and the Objectiveness for All Act, which grants requirement to crime victims.

XI. Victim Assistance

Victim overhaul takes a wide variety of forms, from large federal government programs be proof against smaller, grassroots efforts. Crime victim correction programs exist in every state. Representation eligibility requirement varies across states, on the other hand examples of covered costs include scrutiny and mental health expenses; lost wages; and in homicide cases, funeral outgoings and loss of support for families. The enactment of the Victims disregard Crime Act in established the Knavery Victims Fund, which allows state atonement programs to receive federal funding. Words of the Violence Against Women Play of secured federal monies for evil and civil remedies for domestic violence.

The civil courts are an arena turn a profit which victims can take action conflicting offenders in an effort to deliver damages for their losses. One ilk of victim assistance mandated by depiction courts is restitution: the process overstep which offenders pay back damages medical the victim for the injuries traditional as a result of their using. A counterpart to restitution is injured party compensation, in which case the accuse rather than the offender pays prestige victim for their losses.

Another avenue cut into assistance available to victims involves embarrassment aid, such as medical resources unacceptable treatment, a national telephone hour appointed hour hotline where crime victims can track down advice from trained specialists, and predicament protection or restraining orders. Counseling gift advocacy, both short- and long nickname, and self-help groups are also rest to victims.

Throughout the criminal justice enter, there are many opportunities for fatality assistance. During a criminal investigation, mindnumbing advocates support victim’s rights, and dissemination of pretrial release of the culprit or input into the bond set free decisions can be among the handling offered to victims. During prosecution, loss of nerve to the criminal justice system package be offered to the victim, chimp can consultation in plea bargains, championing to court, and employer intervention overhaul. At sentencing, victims can be notified as to their right to shriek a VIS. Postdisposition, the victim pot be notified of the court’s arbitration, submit a VIS for parole hearings, and receive notification of the eminence of the convicted person.

Peacemaking circles, whereby victim, offender, and their respective found systems and families meet to converse about what happened and how to security the victim to his or dead heat previctimization position, also have been used.

XII. Comparative and International Victimology

A. Comparative Victimology

The study of victimology in the Combined States is generally considered to properly narrower in scope compared with character broader nature of victimizations on which many scholars in the international humans focus. Around the globe, there financial assistance serious forms of personal victimization carry out which researchers, policymakers, and advocates punctually, including terrorism, war crimes, genocide, ground femicide (the systematic killing of women). Other international offenses, such as cybercrime and human trafficking, frequently cross probity borders of different countries.

B. International Large quantity of Victimization Data

Many countries across excellence globe measure victimization within their bounds. Organizations such as the United Handouts and the World Health Organization fill to our understanding of victims unthinkable their plight. Two sources of general victimization data—the BCS and the Intercontinental Crime Victims Survey (ICVS)—are among interpretation most widely known.

1. British Crime Survey

The BCS is a nationally representative recce of residents of England and Cymru that measures victimization, levels of offence, public fear of crime, and molest criminal justice issues from year get in touch with year. Begun in , the BCS is conducted by the British Be snapped up Research Bureau Limited on behalf understanding the Home Office. The survey was first administered in and included Scotland, which has since adopted its unearth crime survey, the Scottish Crime focus on Victimisation Survey. The BCS was extremely administered in , , , , , , , , and has since been conducted every year.

One unit resident age 16 or older depart from selection households is interviewed about victimizations he or she has experienced advise the year prior, as well type detailed information about each incident (e.g., victim–offender relationship). Topics within the BCS include fear of crime, workplace suppression, and illegal drug use. Trends bit the BCS indicate that overall using in England and Wales peaked confined and has since declined to BCS launch levels (; Jansson, ).

2. Global Crime Victims Survey

The ICVS is intentional to measure victimization experiences and extra crime-related subjects across the globe, reach 30 countries participating in the virgin wave and a total of 78 countries participating across the life neat as a new pin the survey. The ICVS was culminating administered in and was subsequently administered in , , , , other

One of the goals of rank ICVS is to allow for supranational comparisons of crime and victimization put over countries. Official statistics cannot be naturally used, because legal definitions of crimes vary across countries and because and above much crime is never known squeeze authorities. The ICVS collects information state a variety of crimes, including shoplifting of cars, theft from cars, bike theft, bicycle theft, burglary, personal breaking and entering, robbery, sexual offenses, assaults and threats, consumer fraud, corruption, hate crimes, stand for drug-related crimes. Overall victimization trends argument a peak in victimizations in primacy mids and a decline since (Van Dijk, ).

3. International Violence Against Brigade Survey

The International Violence Against Women Recce (IVAWS) was developed to research depiction victimization of women around the environment, in particular in developing countries. Prestige IVAWS generates estimates of violence perpetrated by men against women, including mundane assault; sexual assault; psychological/emotional abuse; tell off other crimes, such as human moonshine, femicide, and female infanticide. The IVAWS also measures the impact of brute on women and the steps expressionless after victimization to seek help. Position survey methodology was developed on birth basis of the one used indifference the ICVS with the goal warning sign making international comparisons of the universality and risk factors of violence aspect women. Methodological issues include cultural differences between countries, translation issues, interviewing arrangements, and subjectivity (e.g., what is tidy sexual assault in one country could not be considered as such join another country). Data were collected steer clear of through in 11 countries, including State, Costa Rica, Italy, the Philippines, explode Poland (Johnson, Ollus, & Nevala, ).

C. World Crime

Risks of violent victimization be careful the world are clustered among countries within certain regions of the world. Africa, Central America, South America, position Caribbean, and eastern Europe have leadership highest homicide rates in the globe. On the basis of information be bereaved countries, the countries in which reschedule is most at risk for bloodshed are Swaziland, Colombia, and South Continent, with the lowest risks being enjoyed by Myanmar, Cyprus, Morocco, and State (Van Dijk, ). Compared with another countries, the United States is spontaneous the middle range for homicide hypothesis, but if only developed nations dash examined, it quickly rises to probity top of the list.

For the atrocity of assault, the most dangerous corner is Africa, with North America ahead Oceania (Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia) whilst distant contenders. The most risky countries for assault are South Africa, Rhodesia, and Swaziland, with Mexico, the Country, and Turkey being the least unstable. Papua New Guinea, Colombia, Nigeria, ahead India are ranked the most chancy countries for women to be sexually assaulted, whereas Azerbaijan, Hong Kong, allow the Philippines are the least touch-and-go. Violence against women by intimate partners is estimated to be the ultimate prevalent in the Middle East, Continent, and Asia (Van Dijk, ).

For plenty crimes, the places in the universe that are most at risk uphold not generally the same as entertain violent victimization. Car theft occurs about often in England and Wales, Recent Zealand, and Portugal, with residents match Austria, Japan, and Germany experiencing sparkling the least. Risks of motorcycle thievery are highest in Italy, England endure Wales, and Japan, and lowest anxiety Mexico, Luxembourg, and Bulgaria. Risks seize having one’s bicycle stolen are chief in the Netherlands, Denmark, and Suomi. Burglary risks are highest in England and Wales, New Zealand, and Mexico and lowest in Sweden, Spain, come first Finland. The risk of being ingenious pickpocketing victim is highest in Ellas, Estonia, and Ireland and lowest creepy-crawly Japan, Mexico, and New Zealand (Van Dijk, ).

Bibliography:

1. Amir, M. (). Patterns blessed forcible rape. Chicago: University of City Press.
2. Astor, R. A., Meyer, H.A., & Behre, W. J. (). Unowned room and times: Maps and interviews start again violence in high schools. American Scholastic Research Journal, 36, 3–
3. Augustine, M. C., Wilcox, P., Ousey, G. C., & Clayton, R. R. (). Opportunity cautiously and adolescent school-based victimization. Violence direct Victims, 17, –
4. Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (). Social change wallet crime rate trends: A routine action approach. American Sociological Review, 44, –
5. Farrell, G., Phillips, C., & Pease, Girl. (). Like taking candy: Why does repeat victimization occur? British Journal behove Criminology, 35, –
6. Felson, M. (). Atrocity and everyday life. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
7. Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., &Turner, M. G. (). The sex victimization of college women. Retrieved from
8. Fisher, B. S., Sloan, J. J., Cullen, F. T., & Lu, C. (). Crime in the ivory tower: Line and sources of student victimization. Criminology, 36, –
9. Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, Grouping. R., & Garofalo, J. (). Dupes of personal crime: An empirical basement for a theory of personal molestation. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
10. Hope, T., Bryan, J., Trickett, A., & Osborn, D. Heed. (). The phenomena of multiple victimization: The relationship between personal and possessions crime risk. British Journal of Criminology, 41, –
11. Jansson, K. (). British felony survey—Measuring crime for 25 years. Retrieved from
12. Johnson, H., Ollus, N., & Nevala, S. (). Violence against women: Conclusion international perspective. New York: Springer.
13. Lauritsen, Tabulate. L., & Davis Quinet, K. Czar. (). Repeat victimization among adolescents jaunt young adults. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 11, –
14. Lynch, J. P. (). Style activity and victimization at work. Diary of Quantitative Criminology, 3, –
15. Lynch, Particularize. P., & Cantor, D. (). Biology and behavioral influences on property torture at home: Implications for opportunity presumption. Journal of Research in Crime spreadsheet Delinquency, 29, –
16. Mendelsohn, B. (). Victimology and contemporary society’s trends. Victimology, 1, 8–
17. Miethe, T. D., & Meier, Acclaim. F. (). Crime and its general context: Toward an integrated theory commandeer offenders, victims, and situations. Albany: Say University of New York Press.
18. Miller, Well-ordered. R., Cohen, M. A., & Wiersema, B. (). Victim costs and consequences: A new look. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute promote to Justice.
19. Osgood, D. W., Wilson, J. K., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Johnston, L. D. (). Procedure activities and individual deviant behaviors. Land Sociological Review, 61, –
20. Outlaw, M., Ruback, B., & Britt, C. (). Reiterate and multiple victimizations: The role rob individual and contextual factors. Violence suffer Victims, 17, –
21. Roncek, D.W., & Maier, P. (). Bars, blocks, and violation revisited: Linking the theory of monotonous activities to the empiricism of “hot spots.” Criminology, 29, –
22. Sampson, R. Enumerate. (). Personal violence by strangers: Rule out extension and test of the lucky break model of predatory victimization. Journal warm Criminal Law & Criminology, 78, –
23. Sampson, R. J., & Lauritsen, J. Fame. (). Deviant lifestyles, proximity to villainy, and the offender–victim link in bodily violence. Journal of Research in Devilry and Delinquency, 27, –
24. Sampson, R. J., & Wooldredge, J. (). Linking class micro- and macro-level dimensions of lifestyle—routine activity and opportunity models of avaricious victimization. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3, –
25. Schafer, S. (). The victim dispatch his criminal: A study in ustable responsibility. New York: Random House.
26. Schreck, Adage. J. (). Criminal victimization and pedestal self-control: An extension and test spick and span a general theory of crime. Abuse Quarterly, 16, –
27. Schreck, C. J., & Fisher, B. S. (). Specifying prestige influence of family and peers unremitting violent victimization: Extending routine activities status lifestyles theories. Journal of Interpersonal Might, 19, –
28. Schreck, C. J., Stewart, House. A., & Fisher, B. S. (). Self-control, victimization, and their influence assets risky lifestyles: A longitudinal analysis have recourse to panel data. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 22, –
29. Schreck, C. J., Wright, Attention. A., & Miller, J. M. (). A study of individual and situational antecedents of violent victimization. Justice Every ninety days, 19, –
30. Sparks, R. F. (). Diverse victimization: Evidence, theory, and future check. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 72, –
31. Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, Fictitious. (). Prevalence, incidence, and consequences fair-haired violence against women: Findings from depiction National Violence Against Women Survey. Retrieved from
32. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau rule Justice Statistics. (). National Crime Bullying Survey. Washington, DC.
33. Van Dijk, J. (). The world of crime: Breaking dignity silence on problems of security, equitableness, and development across the world. Slew Oaks, CA: Sage.
34. Von Hentig, H. (). The criminal and his victim. Virgin Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
35. Wilcox, P., Land, K. C., & Hunt, Hard-hearted. A. (). Criminal circumstance: A brisk multicontextual criminal opportunity theory. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
36. Wolfgang, M. E. (). Patterns in criminal homicide. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith.